A review on the modeling and validation of biomass pyrolysis with a focus on product yield and composition

Xia, Changlei; Cai, Liping; Zhang, Haifeng; Zuo, Lei; Shi, Sheldon Q.; Lam, Su Shiung

doi:10.18331/BRJ2021.8.1.2

A review on the modeling and validation of biomass pyrolysis with a focus on product yield and composition

Document Type : Review Paper

Authors

¹ Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas 76203, USA.

² Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forestry Resources, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210037, China.

³ Mechanical Engineering, NSF I/UCRC Center for Energy Harvesting Materials and Systems (CEHMS), Virginia Tech, 311 Durham Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.

⁴ Higher Institution Centre of Excellence (HICoE), Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries (AKUATROP), Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia.

10.18331/BRJ2021.8.1.2

Abstract

Modeling is regarded as a suitable tool to improve biomass pyrolysis in terms of efficiency, product yield, and controllability. However, it is crucial to develop advanced models to estimate products' yield and composition as functions of biomass type/characteristics and process conditions. Despite many developed models, most of them suffer from insufficient validation due to the complexity in determining the chemical compounds and their quantity. To this end, the present paper reviewed the modeling and verification of products derived from biomass pyrolysis. Besides, the possible solutions towards more accurate modeling of biomass pyrolysis were discussed. First of all, the paper commenced reviewing current models and validating methods of biomass pyrolysis. Afterward, the influences of biomass characteristics, particle size, and heat transfer on biomass pyrolysis, particle motion, reaction kinetics, product prediction, experimental validation, current gas sensors, and potential applications were reviewed and discussed comprehensively. There are some difficulties with using current pyrolysis gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) for modeling and validation purposes due to its bulkiness, fragility, slow detection, and high cost. On account of this, the applications of Py-GC/MS in industries are limited, particularly for online product yield and composition measurements. In the final stage, a recommendation was provided to utilize high-temperature sensors with high potentials to precisely validate the models for product yield and composition (especially CO, CO₂, and H₂) during biomass pyrolysis.

Graphical Abstract

Highlights

Biomass pyrolysis methods and modeling are reviewed.

Pyrolysis mechanisms considering the effects of different biomass components are presented.

Models used for predicting product yields along with validation methods are reviewed and discussed.

Recommendations on using high-temp gas sensors to determine gas yield and composition are provided.

Keywords

References

[1] Abnisa, F., Daud, W.M.A.W., 2014. A review on co-pyrolysis of biomass: an optional technique to obtain a high-grade pyrolysis oil. Energy Convers. Manage. 87, 71-85.

[2] Aghbashlo, M., Almasi, F., Jafari, A., Nadian, M.H., Soltanian, S., Lam, S.S., Tabatabaei, M., 2021. Describing biomass pyrolysis kinetics using a generic hybrid intelligent model: a critical stage in sustainable waste-oriented biorefineries. Renewable Energy. 170, 81-91.

[3] Aghbashlo, M., Tabatabaei, M., Nadian, M.H., Davoodnia, V., Soltanian, S., 2019. Prognostication of lignocellulosic biomass pyrolysis behavior using ANFIS model tuned by PSO algorithm. Fuel. 253, 189-198.

[4] Amen-Chen, C., Pakdel, H., Roy, C., 2001. Production of monomeric phenols by thermochemical conversion of biomass: a review. Bioresour. Technol. 79(3), 277-299.

[5] Anca-Couce, A., Zobel, N., 2012. Numerical analysis of a biomass pyrolysis particle model: solution method optimized for the coupling to reactor models. Fuel. 97, 80-88.

[6] Antal, M.J., Mochidzuki, K., Paredes, L.S., 2003. Flash carbonization of biomass. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 42(16), 3690-3699.

[7] Apaydın-Varol, E., Pütün, A.E., 2012. Preparation and characterization of pyrolytic chars from different biomass samples. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 98, 29-36.

[8] Arshak, K., Moore, E., Lyons, G.M., Harris, J., Clifford, S., 2004. A review of gas sensors employed in electronic nose applications. Sensor Rev. 24(2), 181-198.

[9] Asadieraghi, M., Daud, W.M.A.W., Abbas, H.F., 2015. Heterogeneous catalysts for advanced bio-fuel production through catalytic biomass pyrolysis vapor upgrading: a review. RSC Adv. 5(28), 22234-22255.

[10] Authier, O., Ferrer, M., Mauviel, G., Khalfi, A.E., Lédé, J., 2009. Wood fast pyrolysis: comparison of Lagrangian and Eulerian modeling approaches with experimental measurements. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 48(10), 4796-4809.

[11] Bandyopadhyay, S., Chowdhury, R., Biswas, G.K., 1996. Transient behavior of a coconut shell pyrolyzer: a mathematical analysis. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 35(10), 3347-3355.

[12] Baruah, D., Baruah, D.C., Hazarika, M.K., 2017. Artificial neural network based modeling of biomass gasification in fixed bed downdraft gasifiers. Biomass Bioenergy. 98, 264-271.

[13] Bassilakis, R., Carangelo, R.M., Wojtowicz, M.A., 2001. TG-FTIR analysis of biomass pyrolysis. Fuel. 80(12), 1765-1786.

[14] Bauer, W.D., Talmadge, K.W., Keegstra, K., Albersheim, P., 1973. The structure of plant cell walls II. the hemicellulose of the walls of suspension-cultured sycamore cells. Plant Physiol. 51(1), 174-187.

[15] Biagini, E., Barontini, F., Tognotti, L., 2006. Devolatilization of biomass fuels and biomass components studied by TG/FTIR technique. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 45(13), 4486-4493.

[16] Biagini, E., Fantei, A., Tognotti, L., 2008. Effect of the heating rate on the devolatilization of biomass residues. Thermochim. Acta 472(1-2), 55-63.

[17] Bitowft, B., Andersson, L.A., Bjerle, I., 1989. Fast pyrolysis of sawdust in an entrained flow reactor. Fuel. 68(5), 561-566.

[18] Bliek, A., Van Poelje, W.M., Van Swaaij, W.P.M., Van Beckum, F.P.H., 1985. Effects of intraparticle heat and mass transfer during devolatilization of a single coal particle. AIChE J. 31(10), 1666-1681.

[19] Bourgonje, Z.C., Veringa, H.J., Smeulders, D.M.J., 2017. The new method to characterize the gas emissions during torrefaction real-time. Fuel Process. Technol. 164, 24-32.

[20] Bradbury, A.G., Sakai, Y., Shafizadeh, F., 1979. A kinetic model for pyrolysis of cellulose. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 23(11), 3271-3280.

[21] Bridgwater, A.V., Peacocke, G.V.C., 2000. Fast pyrolysis processes for biomass. Renew. Sust. Energy Rev. 4(1), 1-73.

[22] Bridgwater, A.V., 2003. Renewable fuels and chemicals by thermal processing of biomass. Chem. Eng. J. 91(2-3), 87-102.

[23] Bridgwater, A.V., 2012. Review of fast pyrolysis of biomass and product upgrading. Biomass Bioenergy. 38, 68-94.

[24] Brown, D.W., Fuchino, T., Maréchal, F.M., 2007. Stoichiometric equilibrium modelling of biomass gasification: Validation of artificial neural network temperature difference parameter regressions. J. Chem. Eng. Japan. 40(3), 244-254.

[25] Brown, J.N., Brown, R.C., 2012. Process optimization of an auger pyrolyzer with heat carrier using response surface methodology. Bioresour. Technol. 103(1), 405-414.

[26] Bruchmüller, J., van Wachem, B.G.M., Gu, S., Luo, K.H., Brown, R.C., 2012. Modeling the thermochemical degradation of biomass inside a fast pyrolysis fluidized bed reactor. AICHE J. 58(10), 3030-3042.

[27] Burhenne, L., Messmer, J., Aicher, T., Laborie, M.P., 2013. The effect of the biomass components lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose on TGA and fixed bed pyrolysis. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 101, 177-184.

[28] Caballero, J.A., Font, R., Marcilla, A., 1996. Comparative study of the pyrolysis of almond shells and their fractions, holocellulose and lignin. product yields and kinetics. Thermochim. Acta. 276, 57-77.

[29] Cai, J., Wu, W., Liu, R., 2014. An overview of distributed activation energy model and its application in the pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass. Renew. Sust. Energy Rev. 36, 236-246.

[30] Cai, J., Wu, W., Liu, R., Huber, G.W., 2013. A distributed activation energy model for the pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass. Green Chem. 15(5), 1331-1340.

[31] Calvo-Flores, F.G., Dobado, J.A., 2010. Lignin as renewable raw material. ChemSusChem. 3(11), 1227-1235.

[32] Çepelioğullar, Ö., Mutlu, İ., Yaman, S., Haykiri-Acma, H., 2016. A study to predict pyrolytic behaviors of refuse-derived fuel (RDF): artificial neural network application. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 122, 84-94.

[33] Chan, W.C.R., Kelbon, M., Krieger, B.B., 1985. Modelling and experimental verification of physical and chemical processes during pyrolysis of a large biomass particle. Fuel. 64(11), 1505-1513.

[34] Chi, M., Xu, X., Cui, D., Zhang, H., Wang, Q., 2016. A TG-FTIR investigation and kinetic analysis of oil shale kerogen pyrolysis using the distributed activation energy model. Oil Shale. 33(3), 228-247.

[35] Coats, A.W., Redfern, J.P., 1964. Kinetic parameters from thermogravimetric data. Nature. 201(4914), 68-69.

[36] Collard, F.X., Blin, J., 2014. A review on pyrolysis of biomass constituents: mechanisms and composition of the products obtained from the conversion of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. Renew. Sust. Energy Rev. 38, 594-608.

[37] Corbetta, M., Frassoldati, A., Bennadji, H., Smith, K., Serapiglia, M.J., Gauthier, G., Melkior, T., Ranzi, E., Fisher, E.M., 2014. Pyrolysis of centimeter-scale woody biomass particles: kinetic modeling and experimental validation. Energy Fuels. 28(6), 3884-3898.

[38] Corella, J., Monzon, A., Santamaria, J., Gonzalez-Canibano, J., 1988. Ultra-fast biomass pyrolysis in a high-temperature (2200 C), fluid-wall reactor. J. Sol. Energy Eng. 110(1), 10-13.

[39] Couhert, C., Commandre, J.M., Salvador, S., 2009a. Is it possible to predict gas yields of any biomass after rapid pyrolysis at high temperature from its composition in cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin?. Fuel. 88(3), 408-417.

[40] Couhert, C., Commandré, J.M., Salvador, S., 2009b. Failure of the component additivity rule to predict gas yields of biomass in flash pyrolysis at 950 ºC. Biomass Bioenergy. 33(2), 316-326.

[41] Dakin, J.P., Chambers, P., 2006. Review of methods of optical gas detection by direct optical spectroscopy, with emphasis on correlation spectroscopy. Optical Chemical Sensors. Springer, pp. 457-477.

[42] Das, P., Ganesh, A., Wangikar, P., 2004. Influence of pretreatment for deashing of sugarcane bagasse on pyrolysis products. Biomass Bioenergy. 27(5), 445-457.

[43] De Jong, W., Di Nola, G., Venneker, B.C.H., Spliethoff, H., Wójtowicz, M.A., 2007. TG-FTIR pyrolysis of coal and secondary biomass fuels: determination of pyrolysis kinetic parameters for main species and NO_x precursors. Fuel. 86(15), 2367-2376.

[44] De Jong, W., Pirone, A., Wojtowicz, M.A., 2003. Pyrolysis of Miscanthus Giganteus and wood pellets: TG-FTIR analysis and reaction kinetics☆. Fuel. 82(9), 1139-1147.

[45] de Souza, M.B., Couceiro, L., Barreto, A.G., Quitete, C.P.B., 2012. Neural network based modeling and operational optimization of biomass gasification processes. Gasification Pract. Appl. InTech. 297.

[46] Demirbaş, A., 2002. Gaseous products from biomass by pyrolysis and gasification: effects of catalyst on hydrogen yield. Energy Convers. Manage. 43(7), 897-909.

[47] Di Blasi, C., 1996. Heat, momentum and mass transport through a shrinking biomass particle exposed to thermal radiation. Chem. Eng. Sci. 51(7), 1121-1132.

[48] Di Blasi, C., 1998. Physico-chemical processes occurring inside a degrading two-dimensional anisotropic porous medium. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. 41(24), 4139-4150.

[49] Di Blasi, C., Branca, C., D’Errico, G., 2000. Degradation characteristics of straw and washed straw. Thermochim. Acta. 364(1-2), 133-142.

[50] Di Blasi, C., Lanzetta, M., 1997. Intrinsic kinetics of isothermal xylan degradation in inert atmosphere. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 40-41, 287-303.

[51] Di Blasi, C., Russo, G., 1993. Modeling of transport phenomena and kinetics of biomass pyrolysis. Advances in thermochemical biomass conversion. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 906-921.

[52] Dizaji, H.B., Dizaji, F.F., Bidabadi, M., 2014. Determining thermo-kinetic constants in order to classify explosivity of foodstuffs. Combustion, Explosion, Shock Waves. 50(4), 454-462.

[53] Dong, C.Q., Zhang, Z.F., Lu, Q., Yang, Y.P., 2012. Characteristics and mechanism study of analytical fast pyrolysis of poplar wood. Energy Convers. Manage. 57, 49-59.

[54] Doyle, C.D., 1965. Series approximations to the equation of thermogravimetric data. Nature. 207(4994), 290-291.

[55] Dubbe, A., 2003. Fundamentals of solid state ionic micro gas sensors. Sens. Actuators, B. 88(2), 138-148.

[56] Dupont, C., Boissonnet, G., Seiler, J.M., Gauthier, P., Schweich, D., 2007. Study about the kinetic processes of biomass steam gasification. Fuel. 86(1-2), 32-40.

[57] Dupont, C., Chen, L., Cances, J., Commandre, J.M., Cuoci, A., Pierucci, S., Ranzi, E., 2009. Biomass pyrolysis: kinetic modelling and experimental validation under high temperature and flash heating rate conditions. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 85(1-2), 260-267.

[58] Elosua, C., Matias, I.R., Bariain, C., Arregui, F.J., 2006. Development of an in-fiber nanocavity towards detection of volatile organic gases. Sensors. 6(6), 578-592.

[59] Eremin, V.M.I., N.A.; Lyubchenko, F.N., 2007. Micromachined gas chromatography system.

[60] Fan, R., Fox, R.O., 2008. Segregation in polydisperse fluidized beds: validation of a multi-fluid model. Chem. Eng. Sci. 63(1), 272-285.

[61] Fan, R., Fox, R.O., Muhle, M.E., 2007. Role of intrinsic kinetics and catalyst particle size distribution in CFD simulations of polymerization reactors.

[62] Fan, R., Marchisio, D.L., Fox, R.O., 2004. Application of the direct quadrature method of moments to polydisperse gas-solid fluidized beds. Powder Technol. 139(1), 7-20.

[63] Fanget, S., Hentz, S., Puget, P., Arcamone, J., Matheron, M., Colinet, E.D., Andreucci, P., Duraffourg, L., Myers, E., Roukes, M., 2011. Gas sensors based on gravimetric detection-a review. Sens. Actuators, B. 160(1), 804-821.

[64] Ferdous, D., Dalai, A.K., Bej, S.K., Thring, R.W., Bakhshi, N.N., 2001. Production of H₂ and medium Btu gas via pyrolysis of lignins in a fixed-bed reactor. Fuel Process. Technol. 70(1), 9-26.

[65] Fletcher, D.F., Haynes, B.S., Christo, F.C., Joseph, S.D., 2000. A CFD based combustion model of an entrained flow biomass gasifier. Appl. Math. Model. 24(3), 165-182.

[66] Fletcher, T.H., Kerstein, A.R., Pugmire, R.J., Solum, M.S., Grant, D.M., 1992. Chemical percolation model for devolatilization. 3. direct use of carbon-13 NMR data to predict effects of coal type. Energy Fuels. 6(4), 414-431.

[67] Fletcher, T.H., Pond, H.R., Webster, J., Wooters, J., Baxter, L.L., 2012. Prediction of tar and light gas during pyrolysis of black liquor and biomass. Energy Fuels. 26(6), 3381-3387.

[68] Flynn, J.H., 1997. The ‘temperature integral’-its use and abuse. Thermochim. Acta 300(1-2), 83-92.

[69] Friedman, H.L., 1964. Kinetics of thermal degradation of char‐forming plastics from thermogravimetry. application to a phenolic plastic. J. Polymer Sci. Polym. Symp. 6(1), 183-195.

[70] Garcia-Maraver, A., Salvachúa, D., Martínez, M.J., Diaz, L.F., Zamorano, M., 2013. Analysis of the relation between the cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin content and the thermal behavior of residual biomass from olive trees. Waste Manage. 33(11), 2245-2249.

[71] Gavrilov, S.A., Il’ichev, E.A., Poltoratskii, É.A., Rychkov, G.S., Dvorkin, V.V., Dzbanovsky, N.N., Suetin, N.V., 2004. Carbon nanotube field emitters for planar emission vacuum micro-and nanoelectronics. Tech. Phys. Lett. 30(7), 609-611.

[72] Ge, S., Foong, S.Y., Ma, N.L., Liew, R.K., Mahari, W.A.W., Xia, C., Yek, P.N.Y., Peng, W., Nam, W.L., Lim, X.Y., Liew, C.M., Chong, C.C., Sonne, C., Lam, S.S., 2020a. Vacuum pyrolysis incorporating microwave heating and base mixture modification: an integrated approach to transform biowaste into eco-friendly bioenergy products. Renew. Sust. Energy Rev. 127, 109871.

[73] Ge, S., Wu, Y., Peng, W., Xia, C., Mei, C., Cai, L., Shi, S.Q., Sonne, C., Lam, S.S., Tsang, Y.F., 2020b. High-pressure CO₂ hydrothermal pretreatment of peanut shells for enzymatic hydrolysis conversion into glucose. Chem. Eng. J. 385, 123949.

[74] Geng, J., Wang, W.L., Yu, Y.X., Chang, J.M., Cai, L.p., Shi, S.Q., 2017. Adding nickel formate in alkali lignin to increase contents of alkylphenols and aromatics during fast pyrolysis. Bioresour. Technol. 227, 1-6.

[75] Gerber, S., Behrendt, F., Oevermann, M., 2010. An Eulerian modeling approach of wood gasification in a bubbling fluidized bed reactor using char as bed material. Fuel. 89(10), 2903-2917.

[76] Ghosh, A., Zhang, C., Shi, S.Q., Zhang, H., 2019a. High‐temperature gas sensors for harsh environment applications: a review. Clean (Weinh), 47(8), 1800491.

[77] Ghosh, A., Zhang, C., Shi, S., Zhang, H., 2019b. High temperature CO2 sensing and its cross-sensitivity towards H₂ and CO gas using calcium doped ZnO thin film coated langasite SAW sensor. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 301, 126958.

[78] Goodwin, T.W., Mercer, E., 1972. Introduction to plant biochemistry.

[79] Gründler, P., 2007. Chemical sensors: an introduction for scientists and engineers. Springer Science & Business Media.

[80] Guo, B., Li, D., Cheng, C., Lü, Z.a., Shen, Y., 2001. Simulation of biomass gasification with a hybrid neural network model. Bioresour. Technol. 76(2), 77-83.

[81] Haider, A., Levenspiel, O., 1989. Drag coefficient and terminal velocity of spherical and nonspherical particles. Powder Technol. 58(1), 63-70.

[82] Hashimoto, K., Hasegawa, I., Hayashi, J., Mae, K., 2011. Correlations of kinetic parameters in biomass pyrolysis with solid residue yield and lignin content. Fuel. 90(1), 104-112.

[83] Horbaj, P., 1997. Model of the kinetics of biomass pyrolysis. Drevársky výskum 42(4), 15-23.

[84] Hu, J., Xiao, R., Shen, D., Zhang, H., 2013. Structural analysis of lignin residue from black liquor and its thermal performance in thermogravimetric-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Bioresour. Technol. 128, 633-639.

[85] Hu, M., Chen, Z., Wang, S., Guo, D., Ma, C., Zhou, Y., Chen, J., Laghari, M., Fazal, S., Xiao, B., 2016. Thermogravimetric kinetics of lignocellulosic biomass slow pyrolysis using distributed activation energy model, Fraser-Suzuki deconvolution, and iso-conversional method. Energy Convers. Manage. 118, 1-11.

[86] Huang, Q.X., Wang, R.P., Li, W.J., Tang, Y.J., Chi, Y., Yan, J.H., 2014. Modeling and experimental studies of the effects of volume shrinkage on the pyrolysis of waste wood sphere. Energy Fuels. 28(10), 6398-6406.

[87] Isahak, W.N.R.W., Hisham, M.W., Yarmo, M.A., Hin, T.y.Y., 2012. A review on bio-oil production from biomass by using pyrolysis method. Renew. Sust. Energy Rev. 16(8), 5910-5923.

[88] Jakab, E., Faix, O., Till, F., Székely, T., 1995. Thermogravimetry/mass spectrometry study of six lignins within the scope of an international round robin test. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 35(2), 167-179.

[89] Jakubik, W.P., 2011. Surface acoustic wave-based gas sensors. Thin Solid Films. 520(3), 986-993.

[90] Jalan, R.K., Srivastava, V.K., 1999. Studies on pyrolysis of a single biomass cylindrical pellet-kinetic and heat transfer effects. Energy Convers. Manage. 40(5), 467-494.

[91] Janse, A.M.C., Westerhout, R.W.J., Prins, W., 2000. Modelling of flash pyrolysis of a single wood particle. Chem. Eng. Process. 39(3), 239-252.

[92] Jha, R., Sharma, A.K., 2011. Design considerations for plasmonic-excitation based optical detection of liquid and gas media in infrared. Sens. Actuators, A. 165(2), 271-275.

[93] Jiang, G., Nowakowski, D.J., Bridgwater, A.V., 2010. Effect of the temperature on the composition of lignin pyrolysis products. Energy Fuels. 24(8), 4470-4475.

[94] Kan, T., Strezov, V., Evans, T.J., 2016. Lignocellulosic biomass pyrolysis: a review of product properties and effects of pyrolysis parameters. Renew. Sust. Energy Rev. 57, 1126-1140.

[95] Kauffman, D.R., Star, A., 2008. Carbon nanotube gas and vapor sensors. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 47(35), 6550-6570.

[96] Klose, W., Wiest, W., 1999. Experiments and mathematical modeling of maize pyrolysis in a rotary kiln. Fuel. 78(1), 65-72.

[97] Kong, J., Franklin, N.R., Zhou, C., Chapline, M.G., Peng, S., Cho, K., Dai, H., 2000. Nanotube molecular wires as chemical sensors. Science. 287(5453), 622-625.

[98] Kong, S.H., Lam, S.S., Yek, P.N.Y., Liew, R.K., Ma, N.L., Osman, M.S., Wong, C.C., 2019. Self-purging microwave pyrolysis: an innovative approach to convert oil palm shell into carbon-rich biochar for methylene blue adsorption. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 94(5), 1397-1405.

[99] Kumar, S.S., Sathyabalan, P., Ragunathan, S., 2016. Simulation of Biomass Downdraft Gasifier based on Neural Networks. Asian J. Res. Social Sci. Humanities. 6(6), 1548-1560.

[100] Lakkis, S., Younes, R., Alayli, Y., Sawan, M., 2014. Review of recent trends in gas sensing technologies and their miniaturization potential. Sens. Rev. 34(1), 24-35.

[101] Lam, S.S., Azwar, E., Peng, W., Tsang, Y.F., Ma, N.L., Liu, Z., Park, Y.K., Kwon, E.E., 2019a. Cleaner conversion of bamboo into carbon fibre with favourable physicochemical and capacitive properties via microwave pyrolysis combining with solvent extraction and chemical impregnation. J. Clean. Prod. 236, 117692.

[102] Lam, S.S., Lee, X.Y., Nam, W.L., Phang, X.Y., Liew, R.K., Yek, P.N., Ho, Y.L., Ma, N.L., Rosli, M.H., 2019b. Microwave vacuum pyrolysis conversion of waste mushroom substrate into biochar for use as growth medium in mushroom cultivation. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 94(5), 1406-1415.

[103] Lam, S.S., Su, M.H., Nam, W.L., Thoo, D.S., Ng, C.M., Liew, R.K., Yek, P.N., Ma, N.L., Dai Viet Nguyen, V., 2019c. Microwave pyrolysis with steam activation in producing activated carbon for removal of herbicides in agricultural surface water. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 58(2), 695-703.

[104] Lam, S.S., Mahari, W.A.W., Ma, N.L., Azwar, E., Kwon, E.E., Peng, W., Chong, C.T., Liu, Z., Park, Y.K., 2019d. Microwave pyrolysis valorization of used baby diaper. Chemosphere. 230, 294-302.

[105] Lam, S.S., Mahari, W.A.W., Ok, Y.S., Peng, W., Chong, C.T., Ma, N.L., Chase, H.A., Liew, Z., Yusup, S., Kwon, E.E., Tsang, D.C.W., 2019e. Microwave vacuum pyrolysis of waste plastic and used cooking oil for simultaneous waste reduction and sustainable energy conversion: recovery of cleaner liquid fuel and techno-economic analysis. Renew. Sust. Energy Rev. 115, 109359.

[106] Lathouwers, D., Bellan, J., 2001. Yield optimization and scaling of fluidized beds for tar production from biomass. Energy Fuels. 15(5), 1247-1262.

[107] Lee, D.D., Lee, D.S., 2001. Environmental gas sensors. IEEE Sens. J. 1(3), 214-224.

[108] Lee, Y.R., Choi, H.S., Park, H.C., Lee, J.E., 2015. A numerical study on biomass fast pyrolysis process: a comparison between full lumped modeling and hybrid modeling combined with CFD. Comput. Chem. Eng. 82, 202-215.

[109] Leonard, J., Kramer, M.A., 1990. Improvement of the backpropagation algorithm for training neural networks. Comput. Chem. Eng. 14(3), 337-341.

[110] Lewis, A.D., Fletcher, T.H., 2013. Prediction of sawdust pyrolysis yields from a flat-flame burner using the CPD model. Energy Fuels. 27(2), 942-953.

[111] Li, S., Xu, S., Liu, S., Yang, C., Lu, Q., 2004. Fast pyrolysis of biomass in free-fall reactor for hydrogen-rich gas. Fuel Process. Technol. 85(8-10), 1201-1211.

[112] Li, Y., Liu, Y., Chen, W., Wang, Q., Liu, Y., Li, J., Yu, H., 2016. Facile extraction of cellulose nanocrystals from wood using ethanol and peroxide solvothermal pretreatment followed by ultrasonic nanofibrillation. Green Chem. 18(4), 1010-1018.

[113] Liao, L., Lu, H.B., Shuai, M., Li, J.C., Liu, Y.L., Liu, C., Shen, Z.X., Yu, T., 2008. A novel gas sensor based on field ionization from ZnO nanowires: moderate working voltage and high stability. Nanotechnology. 19(17), 175501.

[114] Liew, R.K., Chong, M.Y., Osazuwa, O.U., Nam, W.L., Phang, X.Y., Su, M.H., Cheng, C.K., Chong, C.T., Lam, S.S., 2018. Production of activated carbon as catalyst support by microwave pyrolysis of palm kernel shell: a comparative study of chemical versus physical activation. Res. Chem. Intermed. 44(6), 3849-3865.

[115] Liliedahl, T., Sjöström, K., 1998. Heat transfer controlled pyrolysis kinetics of a biomass slab, rod or sphere. Biomass Bioenergy. 15(6), 503-509.

[116] Lin, T., Goos, E., Riedel, U., 2013. A sectional approach for biomass: modelling the pyrolysis of cellulose. Fuel Process. Technol. 115, 246-253.

[117] Lin, Y.C., Huber, G.W., 2009. The critical role of heterogeneous catalysis in lignocellulosic biomass conversion. Energy Environ. Sci. 2(1), 68-80.

[118] Liu, B., Papadikis, K., Gu, S., Fidalgo, B., Longhurst, P., Li, Z., Kolios, A., 2017. CFD modelling of particle shrinkage in a fluidized bed for biomass fast pyrolysis with quadrature method of moment. Fuel Process. Technol. 164, 51-68.

[119] Liu, Q., Wang, S., Zheng, Y., Luo, Z., Cen, K., 2008. Mechanism study of wood lignin pyrolysis by using TG-FTIR analysis. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 82(1), 170-177.

[120] Lu, P., Hsieh, Y.L., 2010. Preparation and properties of cellulose nanocrystals: rods, spheres, and network. Carbohydr. Polym. 82(2), 329-336.

[121] Lu, Q., Li, W.Z., Zhu, X.F., 2009. Overview of fuel properties of biomass fast pyrolysis oils. Energy Convers. Manage. 50(5), 1376-1383.

[122] Lu, Q., Yang, X.C., Dong, C.Q., Zhang, Z.F., Zhang, X.M., Zhu, X.F., 2011. Influence of pyrolysis temperature and time on the cellulose fast pyrolysis products: Analytical Py-GC/MS study. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 92(2), 430-438.

[123] Luik, H., Luik, L., Tiikma, L., Vink, N., 2007. Parallels between slow pyrolysis of Estonian oil shale and forest biomass residues. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 79(1-2), 205-209.

[124] Ma, Z., Custodis, V., van Bokhoven, J.A., 2014. Selective deoxygenation of lignin during catalytic fast pyrolysis. Catal. Sci. Technol. 4(3), 766-772.

[125] Macquarrie, D.J., Clark, J.H., Fitzpatrick, E., 2012. The microwave pyrolysis of biomass. Biofuels Bioprod. Biorefin. 6(5), 549-560.

[126] Mahari, W.A.W., Chong, C.T., Cheng, C.K., Lee, C.L., Hendrata, K., Yek, P.N.Y., Ma, N.L., Lam, S.S., 2018a. Production of value-added liquid fuel via microwave co-pyrolysis of used frying oil and plastic waste. Energy. 162, 309-317.

[127] Mahari, W.A.W., Chong, C.T., Lam, W.H., Anuar, T.N.S.T., Ma, N.L., Ibrahim, M.D., Lam, S.S., 2018b. Microwave co-pyrolysis of waste polyolefins and waste cooking oil: influence of N₂ atmosphere versus vacuum environment. Energy Convers. Manage. 171, 1292-1301.

[128] Mani, T., Murugan, P., Mahinpey, N., 2008. Determination of distributed activation energy model kinetic parameters using simulated annealing optimization method for nonisothermal pyrolysis of lignin. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 48(3), 1464-1467.

[129] Marchisio, D.L., Fox, R.O., 2005. Solution of population balance equations using the direct quadrature method of moments. J. Aerosol Sci. 36(1), 43-73.

[130] McKendry, P., 2002. Energy production from biomass (part 1): overview of biomass. Bioresour. Technol. 83(1), 37-46.

[131] Mellin, P., Kantarelis, E., Yang, W., 2014. Computational fluid dynamics modeling of biomass fast pyrolysis in a fluidized bed reactor, using a comprehensive chemistry scheme. Fuel. 117, 704-715.

[132] Mellin, P., Zhang, Q., Kantarelis, E., Yang, W., 2013. An Euler-Euler approach to modeling biomass fast pyrolysis in fluidized-bed reactors-Focusing on the gas phase. Appl. Therm. Eng. 58(1-2), 344-353.

[133] Meng, A., Zhou, H., Qin, L., Zhang, Y., Li, Q., 2013. Quantitative and kinetic TG-FTIR investigation on three kinds of biomass pyrolysis. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 104, 28-37.

[134] Mikulandrić, R., Lončar, D., Böhning, D., Böhme, R., Beckmann, M., 2014. Artificial neural network modelling approach for a biomass gasification process in fixed bed gasifiers. Energy Convers. Manage. 87, 1210-1223.

[135] Miller, R.S., Bellan, J., 1996. Analysis of reaction products and conversion time in the pyrolysis of cellulose and wood particles. Combust. Sci. Technol. 119(1-6), 331-373.

[136] Miller, R.S., Bellan, J., 1997. A generalized biomass pyrolysis model based on superimposed cellulose, hemicelluloseand liqnin kinetics. Combust. Sci. Technol. 126(1-6), 97-137.

[137] Milosavljevic, I., Oja, V., Suuberg, E.M., 1996. Thermal effects in cellulose pyrolysis: relationship to char formation processes. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 35(3), 653-662.

[138] Miura, K., Maki, T., 1998. A simple method for estimating f (E) and k 0 (E) in the distributed activation energy model. Energy Fuels. 12(5), 864-869.

[139] Modi, A., Koratkar, N., Lass, E., Wei, B., Ajayan, P.M., 2003. Miniaturized gas ionization sensors using carbon nanotubes. Nature. 424(6945), 171-174.

[140] Mohan, D., Pittman Jr, C.U., Steele, P.H., 2006. Pyrolysis of wood/biomass for bio-oil: a critical review. Energy Fuels. 20(3), 848-889.

[141] Morgan Jr, H.M., Bu, Q., Liang, J., Liu, Y., Mao, H., Shi, A., Lei, H., Ruan, R., 2017. A review of catalytic microwave pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass for value-added fuel and chemicals. Bioresour. Technol. 230, 112-121.

[142] Morsi, S.A.J., Alexander, A.J., 1972. An investigation of particle trajectories in two-phase flow systems. J. Fluid Mech. 55(2), 193-208.

[143] Oja, V., Suuberg, E.M., 1999. Vapor pressures and enthalpies of sublimation of _D-glucose, _D-xylose, cellobiose, and levoglucosan. J. Chem. Eng. Data. 44(1), 26-29.

[144] Olaleye, A.K., Adedayo, K.J., Wu, C., Nahil, M.A., Wang, M., Williams, P.T., 2014. Experimental study, dynamic modelling, validation and analysis of hydrogen production from biomass pyrolysis/gasification of biomass in a two-stage fixed bed reaction system. Fuel. 137, 364-374.

[145] Paine III, J.B., Pithawalla, Y.B., Naworal, J.D., 2008. Carbohydrate pyrolysis mechanisms from isotopic labeling Part 4. The pyrolysis Of D-glucose: the formation of furans. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 83(1), 37-63.

[146] Papadikis, K., Bridgwater, A.V., Gu, S., 2008. CFD modelling of the fast pyrolysis of biomass in fluidised bed reactors, Part A: eulerian computation of momentum transport in bubbling fluidised beds. Chem. Eng. Sci. 63(16), 4218-4227.

[147] Papadikis, K., Gu, S., Bridgwater, A.V., 2009. CFD modelling of the fast pyrolysis of biomass in fluidised bed reactors: modelling the impact of biomass shrinkage. Chem. Eng. J. 149(1-3), 417-427.

[148] Papadikis, K., Gu, S., Bridgwater, A.V., 2010. Computational modelling of the impact of particle size to the heat transfer coefficient between biomass particles and a fluidised bed. Fuel Process. Technol. 91(1), 68-79.

[149] Papari, S., Hawboldt, K., 2015. A review on the pyrolysis of woody biomass to bio-oil: focus on kinetic models. Renew. Sust. Energy Rev. 52, 1580-1595.

[150] Passalacqua, A., Fox, R.O., Garg, R., Subramaniam, S., 2010. A fully coupled quadrature-based moment method for dilute to moderately dilute fluid-particle flows. Chem. Eng. Sci. 65(7), 2267-2283.

[151] Patwardhan, P.R., Brown, R.C., Shanks, B.H., 2011. Product distribution from the fast pyrolysis of hemicellulose. ChemSusChem. 4(5), 636-643.

[152] Patwardhan, P.R., Satrio, J.A., Brown, R.C., Shanks, B.H., 2009. Product distribution from fast pyrolysis of glucose-based carbohydrates. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 86(2), 323-330.

[153] Pearce, T.C., Schiffman, S.S., Nagle, H.T., Gardner, J.W., 2006. Handbook of machine olfaction: electronic nose technology. John Wiley & Sons.

[154] Pepiot, P., Dibble, C.J., Foust, T.D., 2010. Computational fluid dynamics modeling of biomass gasification and pyrolysis. Computational Modeling in Lignocellulosic Biofuel Production. American Chemical Society, pp. 273-298.

[155] Peters, B., 2011. Prediction of pyrolysis of pistachio shells based on its components hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin. Fuel Process. Technol. 92(10), 1993-1998.

[156] Peters, B., Bruch, C., 2003. Drying and pyrolysis of wood particles: experiments and simulation. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 70(2), 233-250.

[157] Phanphanich, M., Mani, S., 2011. Impact of torrefaction on the grindability and fuel characteristics of forest biomass. Bioresour. Technol. 102(2), 1246-1253.

[158] Pielsticker, S., Gövert, B., Kreitzberg, T., Habermehl, M., Hatzfeld, O., Kneer, R., 2017. Simultaneous investigation into the yields of 22 pyrolysis gases from coal and biomass in a small-scale fluidized bed reactor. Fuel. 190, 420-434.

[159] Pierucci, S., Ranzi, E., 2008. A general mathematical model for a moving bed gasifier. Comput. Aided Chem. Eng. 25, 901-906.

[160] Piskorz, J., Majerski, P., Radlein, D., Vladars-Usas, A., Scott, D.S., 2000. Flash pyrolysis of cellulose for production of anhydro-oligomers. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 56(2), 145-166.

[161] Ponder, G.R., Richards, G.N., 1991. Thermal synthesis and pyrolysis of a xylan. Carbohydr. Res. 218, 143-155.

[162] Pouwels, A.D., Eijkel, G.B., Boon, J.J., 1989. Curie-point pyrolysis-capillary gas chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry of microcrystalline cellulose. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 14(4), 237-280.

[163] Puig-Arnavat, M., Hernández, J.A., Bruno, J.C., Coronas, A., 2013. Artificial neural network models for biomass gasification in fluidized bed gasifiers. Biomass Bioenergy. 49, 279-289.

[164] Radadia, A., Salehi-Khojin, A., Masel, R., Shannon, M., 2010. The effect of microcolumn geometry on the performance of micro-gas chromatography columns for chip scale gas analyzers. Sens. Actuators, B. 150(1), 456-464.

[165] Radlein, D., Quignard, A., 2013. A short historical review of fast pyrolysis of biomass. Oil Gas Sci. Technol. Rev. d'IFP Energies nouvelles. 68(4), 765-783.

[166] Ranzi, E., Cuoci, A., Faravelli, T., Frassoldati, A., Migliavacca, G., Pierucci, S., Sommariva, S., 2008. Chemical kinetics of biomass pyrolysis. Energy Fuels. 22(6), 4292-4300.

[167] Ranzi, E., Debiagi, P.E.A., Frassoldati, A., 2017. Mathematical modeling of fast biomass pyrolysis and bio-oil formation. Note I: kinetic mechanism of biomass pyrolysis. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 5(4), 2867-2881.

[168] Rao, T.R., Sharma, A., 1998. Pyrolysis rates of biomass materials. Energy. 23(11), 973-978.

[169] Rath, J., Staudinger, G., 2001. Cracking reactions of tar from pyrolysis of spruce wood. Fuel. 80(10), 1379-1389.

[170] Ren, S., Lei, H., Wang, L., Bu, Q., Chen, S., Wu, J., 2013. Thermal behaviour and kinetic study for woody biomass torrefaction and torrefied biomass pyrolysis by TGA. Biosyst. Eng. 116(4), 420-426.

[171] Rostami, A.A., Hajaligol, M.R., Wrenn, S.E., 2004. A biomass pyrolysis sub-model for CFD applications. Fuel. 83(11-12), 1519-1525.

[172] Roy, A.S., Machappa, T., Prasad, M.A., Anilkumar, K.R., 2011. Sensitivity and selectivity studies on polyaniline/molybdenum trioxide composites to liquid petroleum gas. Sens. Transducers. 125(2), 220.

[173] Saastamoinen, J.J., 2006. Simplified model for calculation of devolatilization in fluidized beds. Fuel. 85(17-18), 2388-2395.

[174] Sanders, E.B., Goldsmith, A.I., Seeman, J.I., 2003. A model that distinguishes the pyrolysis of D-glucose, D-fructose, and sucrose from that of cellulose. application to the understanding of cigarette smoke formation. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 66(1-2), 29-50.

[175] Scheller, H.V., Ulvskov, P., 2010. Hemicelluloses. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 61.

[176] Scott, D.S., Majerski, P., Piskorz, J., Radlein, D., 1999. A second look at fast pyrolysis of biomass-the RTI process. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 51(1-2), 23-37.

[177] Shafizadeh, F., 1982. Introduction to pyrolysis of biomass. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 3(4), 283-305.

[178] Shafizadeh, F., Fu, Y., 1973. Pyrolysis of cellulose. Carbohydr. Res. 29(1), 113-122.

[179] Sharma, A., Pareek, V., Zhang, D., 2015. Biomass pyrolysis-a review of modelling, process parameters and catalytic studies. Renew. Sust. Energy Rev. 50, 1081-1096.

[180] Shen, D., Gu, S., 2009. The mechanism for thermal decomposition of cellulose and its main products. Bioresour. Technol. 100(24), 6496-6504.

[181] Shen, D.K., Gu, S., Bridgwater, A.V., 2010a. The thermal performance of the polysaccharides extracted from hardwood: cellulose and hemicellulose. Carbohydr. Polym. 82(1), 39-45.

[182] Shen, D.K., Gu, S., Luo, K.H., Wang, S.R., Fang, M.X., 2010b. The pyrolytic degradation of wood-derived lignin from pulping process. Bioresour. Technol. 101(15), 6136-6146.

[183] Shen, D., Xiao, R., Gu, S., Luo, K., 2011. The pyrolytic behavior of cellulose in lignocellulosic biomass: a review. RSC Adv. 1(9), 1641-1660.

[184] Shen, Y., Yoshikawa, K., 2013. Recent progresses in catalytic tar elimination during biomass gasification or pyrolysis-a review. Renew. Sust. Energy Rev. 21, 371-392.

[185] Sheng, C., Azevedo, J.L.T., 2002. Modeling biomass devolatilization using the chemical percolation devolatilization model for the main components. Proc. Combust. Inst.. 29(1), 407-414.

[186] Shi, S.Q., Xia, C., 2017. Porositization process of carbon or carbonaceous materials. Google Patents.

[187] Shoja, M., Babatabar, M.A., Tavasoli, A., Ataei, A., 2013. Production of hydrogen and syngas via pyrolysis of bagasse in a dual bed reactor. J. Energy Chem. 22(4), 639-644.

[188] Si, H.P., Wu, Z.D., Wu, J.H., Chen, J., Lin, K.Y., 2015. Review on pyrolysis carbonization technology of biomass. Adv. Mater. Res. 1092, 72-78.

[189] Singh, S., Verma, N., Yadav, B.C., Prakash, R., 2012. A comparative study on surface morphological investigations of ferric oxide for LPG and opto-electronic humidity sensors. Appl. Surf. Sci. 258(22), 8780-8789.

[190] Sonobe, T., Worasuwannarak, N., 2008. Kinetic analyses of biomass pyrolysis using the distributed activation energy model. Fuel. 87(3), 414-421.

[191] Soltanian, S., Aghbashlo, M., Almasi, F., Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha, H., Nizami, A.S., Ok, Y.S., Lam, S.S., Tabatabaei, M., 2020. A critical review of the effects of pretreatment methods on the exergetic aspects of lignocellulosic biofuels. Energy Convers. Manage. 212, 112792.

[192] Spearpoint, M.J., 1999. Predicting the ignition and burning rate of wood in the cone calorimeter using an integral model. research directed by Dept. of Fire Protection Engineering.University of Maryland, College Park.

[193] Starink, M.J., 2003. The determination of activation energy from linear heating rate experiments: a comparison of the accuracy of isoconversion methods. Thermochim. Acta. 404(1-2), 163-176.

[194] Sun, Y., Liu, L., Wang, Q., Yang, X., Tu, X., 2016. Pyrolysis products from industrial waste biomass based on a neural network model. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 120, 94-102.

[195] Sunphorka, S., Chalermsinsuwan, B., Piumsomboon, P., 2015. Application of artificial neural network for kinetic parameters prediction of biomass oxidation from biomass properties. J. Energy Inst. 90(1), 51-61.

[196] Sunphorka, S., Chalermsinsuwan, B., Piumsomboon, P., 2017. Artificial neural network model for the prediction of kinetic parameters of biomass pyrolysis from its constituents. Fuel. 193, 142-158.

[197] Suuberg, E.M., Milosavljevic, I., Oja, V., 1996. Two-regime global kinetics of cellulose pyrolysis: the role of tar evaporation. Symp. (International) on Combust. 26(1), 1515-1521.

[198] Suuberg, E.M., Peters, W.A., Howard, J.B., 1978. Product composition and kinetics of lignite pyrolysis. Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev. 17(1), 37-46.

[199] Thunman, H., Leckner, B., Niklasson, F., Johnsson, F., 2002. Combustion of wood particles-a particle model for eulerian calculations. Combust. Flame. 129(1-2), 30-46.

[200] Toda, H., Kobayakawa, T., 2008. High-speed gas concentration measurement using ultrasound. Sens. Actuators, A. 144(1), 1-6.

[201] Tran, D.Q., Rai, C., 1978. A kinetic model for pyrolysis of Douglas fir bark. Fuel. 57(5), 293-298.

[202] Trendewicz, A., Braun, R., Dutta, A., Ziegler, J., 2014. One dimensional steady-state circulating fluidized-bed reactor model for biomass fast pyrolysis. Fuel. 133, 253-262.

[203] Tripathi, M., Sahu, J.N., Ganesan, P., 2016. Effect of process parameters on production of biochar from biomass waste through pyrolysis: a review. Renew. Sust. Energy Rev. 55, 467-481.

[204] Uzun, B.B., Pütün, A.E., Pütün, E., 2007. Composition of products obtained via fast pyrolysis of olive-oil residue: effect of pyrolysis temperature. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 79(1-2), 147-153.